If we learn or Practice something continously , Then It becomes our productive habit.
Continuous learning is necessary to build new skills to grow one’s career path and that’s a given. However, retention is not guaranteed just because you learned something once. Continuous learning works only if you are revising what you learnt.
Considering the Above scenerio as a core this page gives 100 days content for Students who's passionate to become An Electrical or Electronics core Engineer.
This Course Consists of Various content starts from classification of elements to working of controller , which in turns makes Learner to get knowledge in Electrical and Electronics CORE
Topics Covered Here Such as Dual Nature of Electron, Types of Material based on Conductivity, RLC, AC/DC, Earthing, Grounding, 3Phase and SinglePhase, PF, Transformer, Star and Delta Connections, DC Machines, AC Machines, Motor Drivers, EDC, Power Electronics, Controllers, Digital and Analog Values, Sensors, Module, IOT, Project on IOT, Relays, Arduino IDE, Multimeter, PLC, CT, EV, Pico MicroController and Startups and Business ideas using Electrical and Electronics Projects.
Basic Knowledge on Above Topics required to become an Electrical Engineer.
As of April 2021 , Exactly 18 Students Completed this Curriculam in 100 Days as #100daysoflearning challenge.
In 1905,
it was Einstein who suggested the concept of light having a dual nature; particle and wave nature.
In a similar way, Louise de Broglie suggested that electron also exhibits a dual nature. Broglie also got Physics Noble Prize for his this theory.
Now, Bohr considered only the particle nature of electron and hence contradicted Broglie’s concept. Broglie also derived a mathematical expression to prove the wave nature of electron along with particle nature. He gave the following relation:-
λ =h/mν,
where λ is the wavelength of electron,
m is mass of an electron
and ν is the frequency.
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation,
E=mc2.
Broglie compared the above relation with the relation for energy of electron given by Bohr.
hν=mc2
as ν=c/λ
:- hc/λ=mc2
h=mc/λ or mν. (Hence proved)
Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons (current) through a conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as illuminating a light.
In brief, voltage = pressure, and it is measured in volts (V).
The term recognizes Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the voltaic pile—the forerunner of today's household battery.
In electricity's early days, voltage was known as electromotive force (emf).
This is why in equations such as Ohm's Law, voltage is represented by the symbol E.
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of negative charges of the conductor.
In other words, the continuous flow of electrons in an electric circuit is called an electric current.
The conducting material consists a large number of free electrons which move from one atom to the other at random.
Since the charge is measured in coulombs and time in seconds,
so the unit of electric current is coulomb/Sec (C/s) or amperes (A).
The amperes is the SI unit of the conductor.
The I is the symbolic representation of the current.
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.
Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-1854), a German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
He is credited for formulating Ohm's Law.
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc. The 'nonconducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q) to collect on one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if an accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge (Q) on each conductor to the potential difference (V) between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).
The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.
An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil around a core.
When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) (voltage) in the conductor, described by Faraday's law of induction. According to Lenz's law, the induced voltage has a polarity (direction) which opposes the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors oppose any changes in current through them.
An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of inductance is the henry (H) named for 19th century American scientist Joseph Henry. In the measurement of magnetic circuits, it is equivalent to weber/ampere. Inductors have values that typically range from 1 µH (10−6 H) to 20 H. Many inductors have a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electronic circuits. Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.
Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Applications range from the use of large inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove ripple which is a multiple of the mains frequency (or the switching frequency for switched-mode power supplies) from the direct current output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Inductors are used as the energy storage device in many switched-mode power supplies to produce DC current. The inductor supplies energy to the circuit to keep current flowing during the "off" switching periods and enables topographies where the output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound, that can conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current. Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.
The specific properties of a semiconductor depend on the impurities, or dopants, added to it. An N-type semiconductor carries current mainly in the form of negatively-charged electrons, in a manner similar to the conduction of current in a wire. A P-type semiconductor carries current predominantly as electron deficiencies called holes. A hole has a positive electric charge, equal and opposite to the charge on an electron. In a semiconductor material, the flow of holes occurs in a direction opposite to the flow of electrons.
Elemental semiconductors include antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon, germanium, selenium, silicon, sulfur, and tellurium. Silicon is the best-known of these, forming the basis of most integrated circuits (ICs). Common semiconductor compounds include gallium arsenide, indium antimonide, and the oxides of most metals. Of these, gallium arsenide (GaAs) is widely used in low-noise, high-gain, weak-signal amplifying devices.
A semiconductor device can perform the function of a vacuum tube having hundreds of times its volume. A single integrated circuit (IC), such as a microprocessor chip, can do the work of a set of vacuum tubes that would fill a large building and require its own electric generating plant.
Direct current (DC) power, as you may suss from the name, is a linear electrical current—it moves in a straight line.
Direct current can come from multiple sources, including batteries, solar cells, fuel cells, and some modified alternators. DC power can also be "made" from AC power by using a rectifier that converts AC to DC.
DC power is far more consistent in terms of voltage delivery, meaning that most electronics rely on it and use DC power sources such as batteries. Electronic devices can also convert AC power from outlets to DC power by using a rectifier, often built into a device's power supply. A transformer will also be used to raise or lower the voltage to a level appropriate for the device in question.
Not all electrical devices use DC power, though. Many devices, household appliances, especially, such as lamps, washing machines, and refrigerators, all use AC power, which is delivered directly from the power grid via power outlets.
Alternating current (AC) power is the standard electricity that comes out of power outlets and is defined as a flow of charge that exhibits a periodic change in direction.
AC's current flow changes between positive and negative because of electrons—electrical currents come from the flow of these electrons, which can move in either a positive (upward) or negative (downward) direction. This is known as the sinusoidal AC wave, and this wave is caused when alternators at power plants create AC power.
Alternators create AC power by spinning a wire loop inside a magnetic field. Waves of alternating current are made when the wire moves into areas of different magnetic polarity—for example, the current changes direction when the wire spins from one of the magnetic field's poles to the other. This wave-like motion means that AC power can travel farther than DC power, a huge advantage when it comes to delivering power to consumers via power outlets.
In a Single Phase Power Supply, the power is distributed using only two wires called Phase and neutral. Since AC Power takes the shape of a sinusoidal wave, the voltage in a single phase supply peaks at 900 during the positive cycle and again at 2700 during the negative cycle.
The phase wire carries the current to the load and the neutral wire provides the return path of the current. Usually, the single phase voltage is 230V and the frequency is 50Hz (this depends on where you live).
Since the voltage in a single phase supply rises and falls (peaks and dips), a constant power cannot be delivered to the load.
Advantages
Disadvantages
A Three Phase Power Supply consists of three power wires (or the three phases). Additionally, depending on the type of the circuit (which there are two types: Star and Delta), you might or might not have a neutral wire. In a three phase power supply system, each AC Power Signal is 1200 out of phase with each other.
a three phase power supply, during one cycle of 3600, each phase would have peaked in voltage twice. Also, the power never drops to zero. This steady stream of power and ability to handle higher loads makes a three phase supply suitable for industrial and commercial operations.
As mentioned earlier, there are two types of circuit configurations in a three phase power supply. They are the Delta and the Star (Y or Wye). In Delta configuration, there is no neutral wire and all the high voltage systems use this configuration.
Coming to a star or wye configuration, there is a neutral wire (the common terminal/point of the star circuit) and a ground wire (sometimes).
The voltage between two phases in a three phase power supply is 415V while that between a phase and the neutral is 240V. Hence, you can provide three single phase supplies using a three phase supply (this is how it is normally done for residential and small business loads).
Advantages
The term grounding is commonly used in the electrical industry to mean both “equipment grounding” and “system grounding”. Equipment grounding means the connection of earth ground to non-current carrying conductive materials such as conduit, cable trays, junction boxes, enclosures, and motor frames.
System grounding means the connection of earth ground to the neutral points of current carrying conductors such as the neutral point of a circuit, a transformer, rotating machinery, or a system, either solidly or with a current-limiting device.
System grounding, or the intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor to earth, is for the purpose of controlling the voltage to earth, or ground, within predictable limits. It also provides for a flow of current that will allow detection of an unwanted connection between system conductors and ground [a ground fault].
A ground fault is an unwanted connection between the system conductors and ground. Ground faults often go unnoticed and cause havoc on plant production processes. Shutting down power and damaging equipment, ground faults disrupt the flow of products, leading to hours or even days of lost productivity.
Ground faults cause serious damage to equipment and to your processes. During a fault condition, equipment can be damaged and processes shut down, seriously affecting your bottom line.
Definition: The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directly to the earth by the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing. The electrical earthing is done by connecting the non-current carrying part of the equipment or neutral of supply system to the ground.
Mostly, the galvanised iron is used for the earthing. The earthing provides the simple path to the leakage current. The shortcircuit current of the equipment passes to the earth which has zero potential. Thus, protects the system and equipment from damage.
Types of Electrical Earthing
Importance of Earthing
In physics, an electric power measure of the rate of electrical energy transfer by an electric circuit per unit time. Denoted by P and measured using the SI unit of power is the watt or one joule per second. Electric power is commonly supplied by sources such as electric batteries and produced by electric generators.
Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed into an electrical circuit. Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in a span of time.
Symbol - P
SI Unit - Watt, joule per second
It is a Scalar Quantity
Formula :
P=VI
where,
P is the power
V is the potential difference in the circuit
I is the electric current
Power can also be written as
P = I2R
P = V2/ R
The above two expressions are got by using Ohms law, Where, Voltage, current, and resistance are related by the following relation
V = IR
Where,
R is the resistance in the circuit.
V is the potential difference in the circuit
I is the electric current
Since power is the rate of energy consumption, energy can directly be calculated using
P=E/t
Where,
E is the energy consumption (in Joules)
t is the time in seconds
P=VQ/t
Where,
Q is the charge (in Coulombs)
V is Potential difference in volts
t is the time in seconds
Power factor is an expression of energy efficiency. It is usually expressed as a percentage—and the lower the percentage, the less efficient power usage is.
Power factor (PF) is the ratio of working power, measured in kilowatts (kW), to apparent power, measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA). Apparent power, also known as demand, is the measure of the amount of power used to run machinery and equipment during a certain period. It is found by multiplying (kVA = V x A). The result is expressed as kVA units.
PF expresses the ratio of true power used in a circuit to the apparent power delivered to the circuit. A 96% power factor demonstrates more efficiency than a 75% power factor. PF below 95% is considered inefficient in many regions.
The Bear Analogy
How to calculate power factor
A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’) voltage levels between circuits.
Working Principle of Transformer
Transformer Theory
A star connection is a connection used in a polyphase electrical device or system of devices in which the windings each have one end connected to a common junction, and the other end to a separate terminal.
The line voltage is applied to one end of each of the three windings, with the other end bridged together, effectively connecting the windings in a star connection.
The power transformer has a delta connection in the primary winding and a star connection in the secondary winding.
A star connection is a connection used in a polyphase electrical device in which the windings each have one end connected to a common junction, and the other end to a separate terminal.
a connection used in a three-phase electrical system in which three elements in series form a triangle, the supply being input and output at the three junctions
A delta connection is a connection used in a three-phase electrical system in which three elements in series form a triangle, the supply being input and output at the three junctions.
In the US, which uses mostly single-phase transformers, three identical single-phase transformers are often wired in a transformer bank in a delta connection, to create a three-phase transformer.
The delta connection consists of three-phase windings connected end-to-end which are 120° apart from each other electrically.
A delta connection is a connection used in a three-phase electrical system in which three elements in series form a triangle, the supply being input and output at the three junctions.
A DC Machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. There are two types of DC machines; one is the DC generator, and another one is known as DC motor.
A DC generator converts mechanical power (ωT) into DC electrical power (EI), whereas, a DC motor converts d.c electrical power into mechanical power. The AC motor is invariably applied in the industry for conversion of electrical power into mechanical power, but at the places where the wide range of speeds and good speed regulation is required, like in electric traction system, a DC motor is used.
The construction of the dc motor and generator is nearly the same. The generator is employed in a very protected way. Hence there is an open construction type. But the motor is used in the location where they are exposed to dust and moisture, and hence it requires enclosures for example dirt proof, fireproof, etc. according to requirement.
Although the battery is an important source of DC electric power, it can only supply limited power to any machines. There are some applications where large quantities of DC power are required, such as electroplating, electrolysis, etc. Hence, at such places, DC generators are used to deliver power.
AC machines are motors that convert ac electric energy to mechanical energy and generators that convert mechanical energy to ac electric energy. The two major classes of ac machines are synchronous and induction machines. The field current of synchronous machines (motors and generators) is supplied by a separate dc power source while the field current of induction machines is supplied by magnetic induction (transformer action) into the field windings.
AC machines differ from dc machines by having their armature windings almost always located on the stator while their field windings are located on the rotor. A set of three-phase ac voltages is induced into the stator armature windings of an ac machine by the rotating magnetic field from the rotor field windings (generator action). Conversely, a set of three-phase currents flowing in the stator armature windings produces a rotating magnetic field within the stator. This magnetic field interacts with the rotor magnetic field to produce the torque in the machine (motor action).
The main principle of ac machine operation is this: A three-phase set of currents, flowing in an armature windings, each of equal magnitude and differing in phase by 120 , produces a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude.
Motor drives are circuits used to run a motor. In other words, they are commonly used for motor interfacing. These drive circuits can be easily interfaced with the motor and their selection depends upon the type of motor being used and their ratings (current, voltage).
They are basically current amplifiers which accept the low current signal from the controller and convert it into a high current signal which helps to drive the motor.
Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of electrical currents for the purpose of information processing and system control. Prominent examples include transistors and diodes. Electronic devices are usually small and can be grouped together into packages called integrated circuits. This miniaturization is central to the modern electronics boom.
Power Electronics is a branch of Electrical Engineering which deals with power conversion from one from to another form using Inductors, Capacitors, Semiconductor devices (Diode, Thyristor, MOSFET, IGBT etc.). The power may be from mW(point on load applications) to MW(Power Systems).
As you can observe that the Power Electronics is the centre of all branches. If you need to combine any two fields of System&Control, Power&Energy, Electronics&Devices you need to use Power Electronics.
Energy Conversion can take place in any form.
The basic conversions are
A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of separate values at any point in time. It can only take on one of a fixed number of values. This type of signal represents a real number within a constant range of values.
Digital signal are continuous signals
This type of electronic l signals can be processed and transmitted better compared to analog signal.
Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the analog signal.
Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying quantity represents another time-based variable. These kind of signals works with physical values and natural phenomena such as earthquake, frequency, volcano, speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc.
These type of electronic signals are time-varying
Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negative.
It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
Analog Signal works on continuous data.
The accuracy of the analog signal is not high when compared to the digital signal.
It helps you to measure natural or physical values.
Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it may not be meaningful to all.
A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) device used for controlling other portions of an electronic system, usually via a microprocessor unit (MPU), memory, and some peripherals. These devices are optimized for embedded applications that require both processing functionality and agile, responsive interaction with digital, analog, or electromechanical components.
The most common way to refer to this category of integrated circuits is “microcontroller" but the abbreviation “MCU” is used interchangeably as it stands for “microcontroller unit”. You may also occasionally see “µC” (where the Greek letter mu replaces “micro”).
“Microcontroller” is a well-chosen name because it emphasizes defining characteristics of this product category. The prefix “micro” implies smallness and the term "controller" here implies an enhanced ability to perform control functions. As stated above, this functionality is the result of combining a digital processor and digital memory with additional hardware that is specifically designed to help the microcontroller interact with other components.
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other environmental phenomena. The output is generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display at the sensor location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further processing.
The term Internet of Things generally refers to scenarios where network connectivity and computing capability extends to objects, sensors and everyday items not normally considered computers, allowing these devices to generate, exchange and consume data with minimal human intervention. There is, however, no single, universal definition.
The Internet of Things, or IoT, refers to the billions of physical devices around the world that are now connected to the internet, all collecting and sharing data. Thanks to the arrival of super-cheap computer chips and the ubiquity of wireless networks, it's possible to turn anything, from something as small as a pill to something as big as an aeroplane, into a part of the IoT. Connecting up all these different objects and adding sensors to them adds a level of digital intelligence to devices that would be otherwise dumb, enabling them to communicate real-time data without involving a human being. The Internet of Things is making the fabric of the world around us more smarter and more responsive, merging the digital and physical universes.
Relays are electric switches that use electromagnetism to convert small electrical stimuli into larger currents.These conversions occur when electrical inputs activate electromagnets to either form or break existing circuits.By leveraging weak inputs to power stronger currents, relays effectively act as either a switch or an amplifier for the electric circuit, depending on the desired application.
A diode may be the simplest of all semiconductor components, however, it performs many critical functions, including the control of the flow of an electrical current.
A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction but not the other. This is achieved through a built-in electric field. Although the earliest diodes consisted of red-hot wires running through the middle of a metal cylinder which itself was located inside of a glass vacuum tube, modern diodes are semiconductor diodes. As the name suggests, these are made from semiconductor materials, primarily doped silicon.
Despite being nothing more than a simple two-pin semiconductor devices, diodes are vital to modern electronics.
Some of their most common applications include turning AC to DC, isolating signals from a supply, and mixing signals. A diode has two ‘sides’ and each side is doped differently. One side is the “p-side”, this has a positive charge.
The other side is the “n-side”, this has a negative charge. Both of these sides are layered together to form what is known as the “n-p junction” where they meet.
When a negative charge is applied to the n-side and a positive to the p-side, electrons ‘jump’ over this junction and current flows in one direction only. This is the diode’s core property; conventional current flows from the positive side to the negative side in that direction only. At the same time, electrons flow in a single direction only from the negative side to the positive side. This is because electrons are negatively charged and are attracted to the positive end of a battery.
Diodes are extremely useful components and are widely used in modern technology.
Perhaps the most widely known modern application for diodes is in LEDs. These use a special kind of doping so that when an electron crosses the n-p junction, a photon is emitted, which creates light. This is because LEDs glow in the presence of a positive voltage. The type of doping can be varied so that any frequency (colour) of light can be emitted, from infrared to ultraviolet.
Sensitive electronic devices need to be protected from surges in voltage, and the diode is perfect for this. When used as voltage protection devices, diodes are nonconducting, however, they immediately short any high-voltage spike by sending it to the ground where it cannot harm sensitive integrated circuits. For this use, specialized diodes known as “transient voltage suppressors” are designed. These can handle large power spikes over short time periods which would normally damage sensitive components.
The transistor is a semiconductor device which transfers a weak signal from low resistance circuit to high resistance circuit. The words trans mean transfer property and istor mean resistance property offered to the junctions. In other words, it is a switching device which regulates and amplify the electrical signal likes voltage or current.
The transistor consists two PN diode connected back to back. It has three terminals namely emitter, base and collector. The base is the middle section which is made up of thin layers. The right part of the diode is called emitter diode and the left part is called collector-base diode. These names are given as per the common terminal of the transistor. The emitter based junction of the transistor is connected to forward biased and the collector-base junction is connected in reverse bias which offers a high resistance.
There are two types of transistor, namely NPN transistor and PNP transistor. The transistor which has two blocks of n-type semiconductor material and one block of P-type semiconductor material is known as NPN transistor. Similarly, if the material has one layer of N-type material and two layers of P-type material then it is called PNP transistor.
Transistor Terminals
Working of Transistor
In electronics, an electronic switch is an electronic component or device that can switch an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. Electronic switches are considered binary devices because they can be on or completely off. An electronic switch is essentially just a switch that uses an electrical current, to turn on, usually turning off when the current is turned off. Some applications of switches can be quite inconvenient for someone to go and press a button to turn on or off, such as for the starter motor in a car, or the "turn off nuclear meltdown" button inside a nuclear reactor, or in an electronics project, a small low power device such as a receiver, must somehow power a large energy guzzling component, like the motor in a garage door opener. And others just want to control their houses with their computer's, which could never possible supply the 240v/120v mains needed to run some appliances.
Arduino UNO is a Microcontroller board designed by Arduino.cc in Italy.
It used Atmega328 Microcontroller which acts as a brain of this board.
Arduino Bootloader is installed on Atmega328 which makes it capable to work with Arduino Programming.
Arduino is an open-source platform so it has a lot of support from third-party developers.
Anyone can design its Libraries for different sensors and modules.
If you are working on some project and you want to use this Arduino UNO board then you should know about its Pinout.
Arduino UNO has 20 input/output pins.
Among these 20 pins, we have 14 digital pins.
The remaining 6 pins are analogue pins.
It also has 6 PWM pins which are used for Pulse Width Modulation.
Arduino UNO supports follow 3 communication protocols: Serial Protocol , I2C Protocol and SPI Protocol
So, these digital and analogue pins are capable of multiple functions and it totally depends on your projects' requirement. If you want to use SPI modules then you have to stick to SPI Pins and if you want to interface Serial module like GSMm or GPS then you need to use Serial Pins. We can also design software serial as well.
Memories are of main concern while selecting a microcontroller for your project. If you have bigger data or code etc to save then you shouldn't select this one, I would recommend Arduino Mega. So, let's have a look at its memory features:
It has a flash memory of 32Kb.
Arduino UNO has SRAM of 2KB.
EEPROM memory of UNO is 1Kb.
Bootloader of 2Kb is installed so we are left with 30kb Flash memory.
Arduino UNO has numerous applications in our everyday life. It's the most commonly used Microcontroller board. Few of its working fields are as follows: , Embedded Systems , Control Systems , Robotics , Instrumentation and Condition Monitoring
The handheld digital multimeter (DMM) is a basic tool for ham radio applications. It is called a multimeter because it combines multiple meter functions into one unit: voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter. These days, almost all of these meters are digital, which makes them very easy to use.
Here is a list of 10 things you can do with a DMM.
1. Check the power supply voltage on the new power supply you just purchased.
2. See if your HT battery pack is fully charged.
3. Measure the current that your transceiver draws to estimate how long your emergency power system will last during a blackout.
4. Sort the bag of resistors you purchased at the swapfest.
5. Check a fuse to see if it is blown.
6. Troubleshoot your broken rig by checking the bias voltages against the service manual.
7. Figure out if the AA batteries the kids left for you are dead.
8. Verify that your coax is not shorted between the shield and center conductor.
9. Check the level of the power line voltage in the ham shack.
10. Check for good DC continuity between the ends of the TNC cable you just soldered.
An ammeter measures current, an ohmmeter allows you to determine resistance, and a voltmeter is used to measure voltage between two points. Multimeters combine all three functions in a single instrument. (Note: You will need to be able to recognize common electronic schematic symbols for components to fully understand how to use your multimeter.)
Your multimeter’s ammeter function is used to measure the number of electrons passing a given point for a certain amount of time (i.e. current). The units in this measurement are known as amperes. Your multimeter can check how many amperes, e.g., an appliance is drawing so that you can tell if it is drawing excessive current, which will cause a circuit breaker to open.
The ohmmeter function measures electrical resistance — the opposition to an electric current — and uses units known as ohms. An electrical circuit will have a resistance of zero or near zero ohms if it is short-circuited. When a circuit is open it has infinite resistance and no current flow.
The voltmeter function of your multimeter measures the electrical potential between two points in volts and is especially useful for checking whether a battery is nearly dead.
Furthermore, multimeters enable you to measure current and voltage in two different modes: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). Household outlets almost always use alternating current. Keep in mind that different countries have different standards when it comes to AC voltage, which is why many travelers find that their electronics malfunction in other parts of the world. If you’re not sure of the voltage you can use the AC voltmeter function of your multimeter to find out.
Household outlets supply AC current, but batteries supply DC current. You must take the mode of current of what you are measuring into account and set your multimeter to the correct mode to accurately measure electrical or electronic circuits.
Soldering is a joining process used to join different types of metals together by melting solder. Solder is a metal alloy usually made of tin and lead which is melted using a hot iron. The iron is heated to temperatures above 600 degrees fahrenheit which then cools to create a strong electrical bond.
Solder is melted by using heat from an iron connected to a temperature controller. It is heated up to temperatures beyond its melting point at around 600 degrees fahrenheit which then causes it to melt, which then cools creating the soldered joint.
As well as creating strong electrical joints solder can also be removed using a desoldering tool.
Solder is a metal alloy used to create strong permanent bonds; such as copper joining in circuit boards and copper pipe joints. It can also be supplied in two different types and diameters, lead and lead free and also can be between .032” and .062”. Inside the solder core is the flux, a material used to strengthen and improve its mechanical properties.
A soldering iron is a hand tool used to heat solder, usually from an electrical supply at high temperatures above the melting point of the metal alloy. This allows for the solder to flow between the workpieces needing to be joined.
This soldering tool is made up of an insulated handle and a heated pointed metal iron tip. Good soldering is influenced by how clean the tip of your soldering iron is. To maintain cleanliness, a user will hold the soldering iron and use a wet sponge to clean the soldering iron tip prior to soldering components or making soldered connections.
In addition to the soldering iron, solder suckers are an important part of the soldering setup. If excessive solder is applied, these small tools are used to remove the solder, leaving only that desired.
1. MULTIMETER
2. VOLTAGE TESTER
3. WIRE STRIPPERS
4. CIRCUIT FINDER
5. SCREWDRIVERS AND NUT DRIVERS SPECIFIC TO ELECTRICIANS
6. PLIERS
7. FISH TAPE
8. TAPE MEASURE
9. HAMMER
10. LEVEL
11. TORCH
12. UTILITY KNIFE
Tesla was one of the most prolific and innovative engineers and inventors of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. As previously mentioned, his illustrious inventive endeavors began in the early-1880s while he was working at the Central Telegraph Office in Budapest.
However, there is little, if any, information about attempts to file any patents for his work at this time. Tesla's first-ever confirmed patent, for the electric arc lamp, was filed after his arrival in the United States, in March of 1884.
The vast majority of his patents were filed after he left Edison's employ and founded his own company, Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing. Up until 1928, Tesla appears to have protected many of his inventions with patents all across the world.
During this period, his first patent was the US patent no. 334,823 for a commutator for dynamo-electric machines, and according to the Tesla Foundation, his last was the last US patent no. 1,655,114 for an apparatus for aerial transport.
According to U.S. patent records, Tesla held around 112 registered U.S. patents for his work. It is known that Tesla filed a number of patents in other countries, but some of these records are harder to definitively quantify with certainty today.
It is believed that Nikola Tesla held somewhere in the order of 196 patents for his tech, across 26 countries worldwide. Of the non-US patents, the largest number appears to have been filed in Great Britain, with 30 patents granted.
Tesla also held about 10 patents in France, 27 in Belgium, 21 in Germany, 19 in Italy, and 15 in Austria. He also appears to have filed a handful of patents in a number of other countries, including Spain, Belgium, Brazil, and Italy.
The Tesla Foundation has estimated that Tesla held a total of over 300 patents across five continents. However, it must be born in mind that many of these patents were for the same inventions rather than unique developments.
Interestingly, according to an analysis of his patents, his most protected invention was his pump and turbine (US patents 1,061,142 and 1,061,206). For these, he was granted 23 patents in 22 countries.
Of all his patents, 54 were granted in the United States. 1889 appears to have been his most prolific year, with a total fo 39 patents filed relating to his polyphase system.
Tesla also either did not file patent protection for a number of other inventions he came up with throughout his career. A prime example being his application of high-frequency current for medical purposes.
The Main Inventions of Tesla were :
The programmable logic controller, or PLC, is ubiquitous in process and manufacturing industries today. Initially built to replace electromechanical relay systems, the PLC offers a simpler solution for modifying the operation of a control system. Rather than having to rewire a large bank of relays, a quick download from a PC or programming device enables control logic changes in a matter of minutes or even seconds.
A PLC is an industrial-grade digital computer designed to perform control functions—especially for industrial applications.
Refer Below Video (Language : Tamil)
Advantages:
PLC Architecture:
Working of a PLC
Programming in PLC
now that we have had a brief idea about programming in PLC, let’s get into developing one simple application.
Problem: Design a simple line follower robotic system to start a motor when a switch is on and simultaneously switch on the LED. The sensor on the motor detects any obstacle and another switch is on to indicate the presence of the obstacle and the motor is simultaneously switched off and the buzzer is switched on and LED is off.
We can Solve this Problem by Using PLC :)
Circuit theory is a linear analysis; i.e., the voltage-current relationships for R, L, and C are linear relationships, as R, L, and C are considered to be constants over a large range of voltage and currents. ... The response due to all sources present in the circuit is then the sum of the individual responses.
The Major Concepts in CT are based on V, I, R, L and C
The Following Video Playlist Gives Brief Understanding of CT Concepts
Here we have Playlist stating Basic Concepts in EV
As We See EV has more Benifits Such as Easy Driving, Reduced Noise Pollution ,No emissions and No Gas Requirements etc.... It is a great boon , But also the Battery charging requires Emission in turns affects Environment
So, The Thing is We need to Use it Minimaly to go Balance with eco environment.
Introduction
RP2040-Microcontroller
Important Specifications
Meaning of RP2040
Introduction to Raspberry Pi Pico
Features of Raspberry Pi Pico
Other important features of Pico are:
Testing MicroPython on Raspberry Pi Pico
Pico-MicroPython-1
Pico-MicroPython-2
Pico-MicroPython-3
Pico-MicroPython-4
Pico-MicroPython-4
Pico-MicroPython-Thonny-2
Pico-MicroPython-Thonny-3
Pico-MicroPython-Thonny-4
Conclusion
Energy Efficiency and Green Consulting
Corporations are focusing on environmentally friendly options because of government mandates or because of common sense. Offer your expertise in electrical engineering as an employee or as a consultant. Examine how companies can become more energy efficient in their utilities by conducting energy audits and by suggesting ways to implement retrofits, or by suggesting other proactive measures.
To establish yourself as a green electrical engineer, you should get LEED certification. The acronym LEED stands for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, and is overseen by the U.S. Green Building Council. Contact the U.S. Green Building Council to to find out what the latest rules are for certification with LEED status.
Wind Energy Applications
Solar Heating Engineering
Electronic Waste Disposal
New Product Creation
Electronic or Digital Toys
Product Manufacturing Prototypes
Research and Development
Maintenance and Repair Services
Industrial Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
Industrial Machinery Maintenance
Writing and Editing Electrical Engineering Textbooks
Teaching and Tutoring
Fossil Fuels
Renewable Energy
Biomass
Electrofuels and Engineered Fuels
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